Jean-Michel Serres, Composer-pianist (Apfel Café Music): Website

10 March 202022 August 2023

Note | Structuralism

What is structuralism

Structuralism is a school of thought adopts a way of scientific method extracts social and human unconscious structure(s), is based on Saussurean linguistics or semiology. The concept of “structure” means a system composed of relations of things or elements. And structure is not only a set of plurality and unity, but also a whole can’t be separated and described as a system, relations and elements in a total relationship. There’s mutual effects among system, relations and elements. Structure obtains a characteristics through a process of changes. But exact concept of structure is various by authors. And structuralism has no proper manifesto and group.

This school and its movement swept over France and Europe in the 1960’s, still huge influence on humane studies and social science. The argument of structuralism led to be a criticism to rationalism, humanism and progressivism, Marxism and Sartre’s Existentialism. The viewpoint of structuralism still affects people in contemporary society.

A origin: Saussurean linguistic & semiology

A Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure create the general linguistic and semiology. These impact entirely changed the view point and the method of linguistic study.

Before de Sassure, linguists, especially comparative linguistics solely studied comparative and historical study of language. They compared and unraveled changes before and after of a language, differences among languages by phonology, syntax, lexicology and so on. And their ultimate aim is pursued the root and the entire history of the Indo-European language.

Also de Saussure is a great genius in comparative linguistics. But he felt he can’t grasp the truth of language and the true mechanism, mean and value of language forever by the study. So he was completely exhausted these endless study, and in a depressive state for a while. So he planned a study deals with general and universal system of language and human expression, as the general linguistic or semiology.

In “Course in General Linguistics” de Saussure pursued the general system of language, communication, and effects of meaning. This study brought about the school of structural linguistics. And he planned semiology, the general study of sign, precedes linguistics which got to be a major root of structuralism.

Levi-Strauss

Anthropologist, Claude Levi-Strauss applied linguistics of de Saussure and Roman Jakobson to analysis of structures of kinship or mythes in primitive societies, he proved a society composed by unconscious structures than subjective human will and decision. The rules in a structure of a society is an unconscious thing for the members of the society, so function of social structure has more important significance than subjective decision and intention of the world history.

Then Levi-Strauss showed a doubt for the idea of subjective decision by human of existentialism. He said human studies and social science should study the social structure that permits each men’s subjective decisions, the concept of a man as a subject must be resolved.

Roland Barthes

“Écrivain”, Roland Barthes rediscovered the Saussurean semiology, earnestly forwarded and applied it for analyses of literature, culture and the contemporary society. The aim of Barthes is solve the structure behind senses of which human, culture and nature form. Behind human expression and behaviour in a culture or society, there’s a certain invisible function or system.

In an essay “The Death of the Author” Barthes presented the concept of the death of the author, and criticize the author-centralism and the concept of “(grand) work” of classical literary criticism. By Barthes, an author is not the god or creator of the work, text should be read as a weaved fabric of various citations in a culture.

Louis Althusser

Philosopher, Louis Althusser re-read works of Karl Marx as a scientific epistemology or a structural relationalism analysis on economics and society.

Althusser thought, Marx’s theory must be structurally analysed, and the concepts such as “aliennation” and “reification” are eliminated by the method of epistemological break. He removed young Marx’s humanism and Hegel’s rationalism from Marx’s master-piece, The Capital.

Futhermore, Althusser made structural analysis the theory of Marx. He argued about “reciprocal effects between a superstructure and a basis”, “reproduction of relations of production”, and “ideological state apparatuses”. Then he proclaimed Marxism faces a crisis by becoming an ideological state apparatuses of the Communist Party.

Conclusion

Structuralism is a school or a method treat unconscious hidden system regulate thinking and acts of men, formed by relations of a relationship in a society or a culture.

I think structuralism is very important and still valid, and the thinking is still effective to analyse and think about a society, social movements, expressions and literature. And it’s an effective and potent way of thinking and a method of research, equal to phenomenology, existentialism, pragmatism and Wittgenstein’s language game, I think.

References

Akira Deguchi, Real Structuralism: Language, Power, Subject (NHK Publishing, 2013)

Graham Allen, Roland Barthes (Routledge, 2003)

Jonathan Culler, Roland Barthes (Oxford University Press, 2002)

‘Marx (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Peter Singer, Oxford University Press

‘Marx: A Very Short Introduction’ by Peter Singer is a philosophical introduction to and commentary on a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Chapter 1 – A brief biography of Marx.
Chapter 2 – Marx was deeply influenced by philosophy of the Hegelian system. During his student days in Berlin he was a young hegelian. In ‘the Phenomenology of Mind’ Hegel described the entire development of Mind overcomes contradiction or opposition. Mind is ‘alienated’ from itself and it becomes the same great whole in its developments. This universal mind finally achieves self-knowledge and freedom. Young Hegelians rejected Hegel’s idealism, and they think religions and authority of states are illusion. It impossible for human beings to regard themselves as ‘the highest divinity’.
Chapter 3 – Left Hegelian theologian Ludwig Feuerbach insisted philosophy begin with the material world. He considered existence precedes thought. Further more Marx stated money, neither religion nor philosophy, is the obstruction to human freedom.
Chapter 4 – Marx placed the proletariat within the framework of Hegelian philosophy. Philosophical theory need to be actualized by practical force, and that force is provided by proletariat. Proletariat possessing nothing can liberate themselves only by liberating all humanity.
Chapter 5 – The alienation from their own nature is that also they are alienated from each other. By Marx’s view, economic life is ultimately real rather than mind or consciousness. So the true total solution to alienated labour, private property, class division and any other problems of capitalism is communism.
Chapter 6 – Marx’s economic theory based on his historical materialism which is a combination of German idealism and the materialist conception of history ‘dialectical materialism’. Marx’s theory of history is a consideration of a human state of alienation. According to him, practical activities solve theoretical problems. To solve philosophical problems, we must change the world. So revolutionary activity is the matter. In modern societies the social power is the productive force of individuals. Thus the production under communism would abolish the alienation between men and their products.
Chapter 7 – Marx divided society into two spheres, the ‘economic base’ and the ‘superstructure’. And the economic base construct the superstructure. Thus society starts with power of production, or ‘productive forces’. The productive forces give rise to relations of production, and these relations constitute the economic structure of society. Law, politics, religions, ethics and moral are superstructure in a society. Marx’s idea of the goal of world history was the liberation of real human beings. By the development of human productive forces, human beings free themselves from the tyranny of nature and their own government of the world.
Chapter 8 – On this chapter, author comments theory of Marxist economics. He applied Marxist key concepts such as use-value, exchange-value, commodity, objectified labour, living labour, surplus value, alienation and necessary labour. Capitalists extend surplus value by the labour-power of proletarians, and pay only the exchange-value of labour as commodity in the labour market. Human relationship in the capitalism societies appears as the shape of the value of a commodity.
Chapter 9 – Marx wished replace capitalism with communism as social system. Communism is the final form of society and the answer to all problems. In communism society, Marx thought, universal interest of its people matches universal content or products. And communism solves the conflicts in previous society between man and nature, between man and man, between freedom and right, and between class and class. But later in life Marx abandoned the Utopian view of communism and necessity of revolution. Communism should be realized by social reforms.
Chapter 10 – Marx achieved scientific discoveries about economics and society? Whether Marx’s theory is scientifically correct or not, we should reconsider it as philosophy or systematic study to solve the problems of the modern society. Socialism societies in the twentieth century are collapsed by tracing to Marx’s misconception of the flexibility of human nature.

This book is a today’s usual balanced neutral introduction to philosophy, economics and thought of Marx. Comparatively Singer concentrate on philosophical problems of human liberty and human nature in society treated by Marx. Also author introduces the essence of ‘Marxist economic theory’ sufficiently. Author don’t conclude whether Marx’s theory is correct or not. Author raises a question of how we think about true liberty and proper society by reconsidering of Marx. Important matters are human nature in production, alienation from labour and commodities, labour theory of value, relation between individual and collective interests, and political domination in capitalism society.
Thus Marx’s optimistic view to flexibility of human nature is disfunction in actual socialism societies in the twenties century. But even today, Marxist theory is valuable to rethink and reform present free capitalism nations. We should applicate achievements of Marx. So I recommend this little good introduction to beginners who start to study Marxist theory.

Marx (Very Short Introductions)
Peter Singer
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 12 Oct 2000
128 pages, £7.99 $11.95
ISBN: 978-0192854056
Contents:
Preface
Abbreviations
List of Illustrations
1. A Life and its Impact
2.The Young Hegelian
3. From God to Money
4. Enter the Proletariat
5. The First Marxism
6. Alienation as a Theory of History
7. The Goal of History
8. Economics
9. Communism
10. An Assessment
Note on Sources
Further Reading
Index

‘Alienation: An Introduction to Marx’s Theory’ by Dan Swain, Bookmarks Publications

‘Alienation: an Introduction to Marx’s Theory’ by Dan Swain is a introduction to a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx. Swain comments thought and economic theory of Marx by his key concept ‘alienation’.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Introduction – Marx described how our human activity could come to be experienced as something external, alien and hostile to us as the theory of alienation. Alienation affects negative to our body and mind.
Chapter 1 – Contemporary economics ignores social and political dimensions of economy. Classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricard considered the wealth in the relation among human beings, nature, labour and objects. Also Jean-Jaques French philosopher Rousseau stated technological and scientific progress brought misery, inequality and moral problem in people’s economic institutions. According to him, alienation brought individual rights and liberty, but we can’t give away them.
Chapter 2 – Marx’s philosophical thought mainly succeed to ideas of Georg Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach. He was a Left Hegelian disputant. But Marx criticise both Hegel and Feuerbach, such as Hegel’s positive idealism, Feuerbach’s thought of ‘education settle the problem of alienation’ and his static conception of human nature, then he developed his own theory of alienation.
Chapter 3 – Capitalist society required dividing society into two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers). Proletarians have no means production and are in miserable condition. Though Marx believed that the proletariat is the class can abolish capitalism and class division by their collective struggles.
Chapter 4 – Essentially, human labour is collective, conscious and transforming engagement with the natural world. In capitalism society, labour works are shaped by wages. For Marx, alienation means lack of control of our process of production. The human labour transformed into a commodity, the affair is the most fundamental form of alienation in capitalism.
Chapter 5 – Under capitalism it occurs alienation from product. Proletarians work to produce things they can’t own themselves. The labour embodied by capital is as ‘dead’. The worker performs more, he pours into the dead labour.
Chapter 6 – People relate to each other through commodities. Marx defined it as ‘commodity fetishism’. Products of labour appears as piles of abstract labour. Thus our social and personal life become commodified and is regarded as a particular value form.
Chapter 7 – Alienation of labour altered our social life and relationships with others. Capitalism and its alienated labour place the second order mediation between man and man. Capitalism causes not only struggle between classes, but also its alienation encourages proletarians to compete with workmates. Even capitalists are slaves to their own inclinations and the markets.
Chapter 8 – Marx argued, capitalism also bad for our individuality. Organized labour work and its alienation harm our physical and mental condition. Under capitalism, we’ve lost control of ourselves.
Chapter 9 – Our alienation form labour and products also means becoming alienated from the natural world in which we live and work. This drives capitalist production that extend productivity itself. The global environment is catastrophically damaged by repetitions of these processes.
Chapter 10 – A new from of labour now dominated is ‘immaterial labour’ which means the production or manipulation of symbols, texts, emotions of feelings. And bosses in company restrained by his leadership and ‘employee autonomy’. Also one feature of labour market on these days is increasing the workers get ‘over-qualified’ jobs, the jobs need degree-level or higher qualifications. Problems of alienation of work still continues today.
Chapter 11 – ‘Young Marx’ thought labour as the way in which we can find fulfilment in the world also under capitalism society. And he argued that great productivity of capitalism reduce working time and give people to more leisure time and recreational activity. But ‘Mature Marx’, in ‘Capital’, would be changed his view point. The capitalist system is autonomous process breeds ills. There’s no human nature in it.
Chapter 12 – Engels argued by the concept of ‘socialised production’, the capitalist production is social and maintained an individualised method of exchange. The capitalist production processes are collective and cooperative, but the products are distributed to people entirely individually. This ambivalence is one of the causes of crisis within capitalism society.
Chapter 13 – Capitalism alienated people from each other and from themselves. And Marx believed people exist in alienated positions in society, the matter make difficult for people to illustrate the detailed shape of an alternative society. His settlement to problem of alienated labour lay in the need for revolution by proletarians. Revolution is a essential thing of overcoming alienation.

In this book, Dan Swain introduces and comments Marx’s theory, various topics of economics and today’s social problems by young Marx’s key concept ‘alienation’. Simultaneously Swain criticise the concept and Marx’s theory, and presents many opinions about them.
Author would think economics of Marx is a theory of relationship between products or production work and human nature or human being. Alienation is key to understand the economics. The concept of alienation has ambivalent aspects. Alienation made human nature independent from natural nature, as the same time alienated labour separated human nature from their own products and production. I think alienation is not only a negative concept or situation. Alienation from natural nature and products or commodities in democratic capitalism societies can make us control ourself, include fashion, education, media and medical service.
I think some chapters go beyond Marx’s own theory. They are only reports of today’s economic issues. Marx is a 19th century person, his theory restricted by the historical dogma and he couldn’t overcome his own ideology. Marx’s theory as it is, should not adjust to today’s problem. And I think author has dogmatic left-wing thinkings like below ‘Major companies exploit poor people.’, ‘Brand is bad and only a commercial mark tempts consumers.’…
But this book is one of lucid, comparatively critical and totally good introduction to Marx’s theory and ‘economics’ that is consideration on relationship between human beings and their products.

Alienation: An Introduction to Marx’s Theory
Dan Swain
Bookmarks Publications, London, 1 May 2012
112 pages, £5.00
ISBN: 978-1905192922
Contents:
Introduction
1. Alienation and Enlightenment
2. Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx
3. A Universal Class
4. Alienation from the Labour Process
5. Alienation from Product
6. Commodity Fetichism
7. Alienation from Others
8. Alienation from Self
9. Alienation from Nature
10. Has Work Changed?
11. Species-being and Controversies of Interpretation
12. Collective Control
13. Revolution
Further Reading
Notes