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Note | Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Plato

Plato is the first philosopher set up philosophy as a total principle and a total human study. He was s pupil and the most influential successor to Socrates. Plato theorized Socrates’ act of life, his pursuit for virtue and truth, thought and questions, then established a philosophical principale theory (as a love of wisdom) for the first time.

And Plato, in his dialogues, treated many philosophical topics such as being, virtue, wisdom, beauty and politics which last until now.

The Theory of Ideas

Plato’s famous and important key concept is the theory of Ideas, also called the theory of forms, the doctrine of ideas.

The word origin of idea is “idein”, “to see” in ancient grec. The meaning of word idea in is “form or appearance is seen”. Also Aristotle’s eidos (form) has same origin and similar meaning. (But their actual meaning is different.) Idea is not unclear, airy, fluid or rough concept. It’s an abstract and unreal but solid and absolute form in the heaven, of which things and abstract concepts have. Plato’s idea is the original ideal form of each of things. Ideas belong to each species of things and concepts.

For example square. A square on a paper written by a man isn’t perfect, the lines are not completely straight and same length, and have thickness, the angles are not completely right angle, and the inner space is not completely closed or the lines stick out slightly. But we recognize it as a square. Like this, Plato thinks a square on a paper shares the idea of square. And Plato thinks each things (such as tree, desk and horse) and abstract concepts (such as good, love and beauty) have their ideas. Also things are in existence since they are provided, shared out by their idea.

Plato’s thinking is curious for us, but it supposed to have the aim to criticize the realistic view, materialism and decadence of Athens’ democracy, Presocratic philosophers and sophists. Their thoughts are things to leave to take its own course. Socrates and Plato thought the cause of the decadence is especially realism, practicalism and relativism of sophists.

Until Socrates, Presocratic philosophers researched the rule and system in the nature and they think there’s truth in the nature. Platon made the view to world reversed. Plato’s theory of ideas advocate the value of things and politics as they should be. The thought of Plato is order of spirit or mind makes a world. So the truth is in a mind of each persons.

Universal Principle and Problems of Platonism

The property of Ideas of each things are eternal and unchangeable. So an idea is identical and universal for everyone. By Plato’s thought, all wise men and men want to live good pursue and want the idea of good. And the idea of good is one and eternal, so they can understand mutually and have the universal principle of good. The theory of ideas shows possibility of mutual understanding and universal principle.

Plato’s philosophical thought by the theory of ideas called Platonism. Platonism teaches us the value of pursuit truth, virtue, wisdom and beauty. It’s a kind of idealism, positivism and optimism. There are ideal and perfect states of things in the world of idea, the model of the real world, and we can pursuit them and we should do it. A typical influence by Platonism is seen on education. Children must not be led nature take its own course, should be educated to become a good person.

On the other hand, there are any problems of Platonism. Platonism thinks the truth or the idea of good is one. So it can’t accept diversity of values. And Platonism bring about logical optimism, excessive rationalism and totalitarianism.

Platonism thinks there’s the world of ideas beyond the real world far in the distance, and offers pursuit for the world of ideas and truth, but we can’t never reach and grasp the true, ideal and perfect states of things. Platonism is an idealism, so it never fulfil the thought perfectly. And it regard reality or the real world is inferior to the world of ideas, the real world is provisional and temporary world. So Platonism possibly result in nihilism and cynicism.

Binomial opposition of ideas and reality of Platonism have been influenced on the Western thought and culture for good and bad.

Conclusion

Plato theorized Socrates’ philosophy, established the philosophy as love of wisdom in earnest which became the tradition of philosophy, and set up the first total philosophical principle unit ontology, ethics, beauty, politics and so on. Theory of ideas includes and units ontology, ethics, aesthetics and political thought. The theory of ideas and Platonism are a strong and influential ways of thinking.

Platonism have been influenced on the Western thought and culture. But it concealed the value of diversity, and regarded earthly world and life inferior and worthless.

References

Hiroyuki Ogino, Symposion of Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle (NHK Publishing, 2003)

Julia Annas, Plato: Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2003)

Paul Strathern, Plato in 90 Minutes (Ivan R. Dee, 1996)

Seiji Takeda, Introduction to Plato (Chikuma Books, 2015)

Jean-François Revel, Histoire de la philosophie occidentale (Nil Éditions, 1994)

Luc Ferry & Claude Capelier, La plus belle histoire de la philosophie (Éditions Points, 2014)

Roger-Pol Droit, Une brève histoire de la philosophie (Flammarion, 2008)

Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1972)

Nigel Warburton, A Little History of Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2011)

Roger Scruton, A Short History of Modern Philosophy (Routledge, 2002)

Gen Kida, History of Anti-Philosophy (Kodansha Academic Library, 2000)

Seiji Takeda, An Introduction to Philosophy: To Know Thyself (Chikuma Arts-and-Science Library, 1993)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Ancient to The Middle Ages (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Thierry Paquot & François Pépin, Dictionnaire Larousse de la Philosophie (Éditions Larousse, 2011)

Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition Revised), (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Penguin Books, 2005)

Note | A Definition of Ethics

What is Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It is a principle, a norm or a theory of behaviour, value, and judgement about good or bad, are invented, made up or reformed by philosophical reflexions. To say quite simply, ethics is a form of knowledge treats human good and bad, or a principle of moral, but it’s not exact.

The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium first divide philosophy into three parts of principle: physics, logic and ethics. Aristotle really invented ethics as a separated study which inspired by ethical thought of Socrates and Plato. Originally, Aristotle’s ethics treats all of humane matters such as living human itself, law and system of society. While Aristotle’s physics treats natural matters are not affected by human. Once ethics was total human study, but the time go on ethics was separated by many fields of humanities and social studies. Now a day, ethics exclusively covers moral, morality, matters about them and action by them.

Difference to Moral

Also, moral or morality is a manner or a way of behaviour and judgement of a man live in the world. But ethics and moral are formed by different roots. Moral is a type of norm and value set naturally inherits past and tradition, or typically from a religion. Also, moral is a judgement by intuition to judge good or bad, a natural and spontaneous thinking about behaviour, what we should do and how to act.

The word, ethics is used for exclusively for the field, the norm and the rule of behaviour are built, invent and formed by the method of general collective reflection. Face with a new situation or problem, it’s necessary to allow or forbid these acts, decide them good or bad in each of cases, persons and situations. Ethics is the rule is elaborated and shaped by accounts and realities of multiple points of view, and find a consensus or an accept among each individuals.

Significance of Ethics

Moral can’t deal with contemporary problems such as biotechnology, doping, environmental destruction, globalization, multiculturalism, information technology and AI. These problem must be considered by various view points, various facts, up-to-date knowledge and various principles of general ethics. And, by the ethical consideration, new principles of applied ethics (such as bioethics) in each fields should be formed. On ethics we reflect on to justify rules, to found choices of action, and point of beginning of our commitments. So ethics is a solution to new problems or peculiar situations.

Today is the age of globalization, so we need a universal mutual understanding beyond divides of countries, regions, religions, races, classes, traditions and common knowledge. Moral is formed by tradition, common knowledge and spontaneousness. So it is different in countries, religions and social positions. Moral might occur conflicts and problems. But ethics is formed by common sense and philosophical reflection, always begin from nothing, and present a mechanism of relations to others. Ethics is a key to live better together in the age of globalization.

Conclusion

Ethics is a principle treats behaviour, value, and judgement about good or bad, are invented, made up or reformed by philosophical reflexions and common sense.
Ethics is the rule is elaborated and shaped by accounts and realities of multiple points of view, and find a consensus or an accept among each individuals.
Moral is a type of norm and value set naturally inherits past and tradition.
Significance of ethics is which give us a solution to new problems or peculiar situations, a key to mutual understanding in the age of globalization.

References

Christopher Panza & Adam Potthast, Ethics for Dummies (Wiley Publishing, 2010)

Roger-Pol Droit, L’éthique expliquée à tout le monde (Éditions du Seuil, 2009)

Yoshiaki Utsunomiya, Introduction to Ethics (Chikuma Books, 2019)

Translation |”On Happiness” from “Notes on Life” by Kiyoshi Miki

Nowadays, people might hardly think about happiness. If you open a book of ethics recently published on our country, then you find easily a book doesn’t treat problems about happiness at all. I don’t know that I can believe such a book is a book of ethics, and I can accept which author is a scholar of ethics. A undoubtedly certain thing is happiness is a key and unavoidable problem of ethics in the all past eras. The Greek classical ethics would be so, also the Stoic rigorousness told the frugality for happiness, then on Christianity, especially St. Augustine and Pascal, their theory of religion and ethics set about a profound fact which human require happiness endlessly. Without thinking about happiness is a characteristics of human today. Today’s confusion of ethics is argued variously, and the fact that theory of happiness disappeared on books of ethics is a representative thing. Till a new theory of happiness will be set upped, confusion of ethics wouldn’t be saved.

You may think, thinking about happiness already must be a… probably a biggest omen of unhappiness. And you may say a man is happy doesn’t think about happiness, as a man has a healthy stomach doesn’t feel a presence of stomach. However, today’s people don’t think about happiness since they are happy ? If anything our era is miserable and which make people lose a motivation to think about happiness. Is the present-day society filled with unhappiness as people feel talking about happiness is an immoral thing ? But a man don’t know what is happiness can know what is unhappiness ? People today must pursue happiness by the instinct. Moreover, they are troubled with their excess of self-consciousness. And the self-conscious men very seldom think about happiness. It’s a characteristic of mental situation today, and it forms a characteristic of unhappiness of people today.

To think about duty by conscience and demand for happiness are opposed is a modern rigourism. In spite of this, I think… today’s conscience is the demand for happiness. The society, the classes, the mankind and so on, there’s nothing as conscientious as demand for happiness in the case of humane demand for happiness is denied by the name of totality. As far as it connects the demand for happiness, ethical concepts used continually today like society, classes mankind and so on may not posses anything ethical means. Or, as the problems of ethics divided them of happiness, all of arbitrary things could be treated as the concepts of ethics. The demand for happiness should be restored as today’s consciousness. The problem of a man is a humanist or not depends on this point mostly.

As the problem of happiness was killed much more on the the problem of ethics, ethical jargons were formed. For instance, be ethical and be subjective are treat as the same is right. But, today, be subjective also became an ethical jargon by being abstract from the demand for happiness. As well theory of motive is going to be vanished on the contemporary ethics, and by the spread of the word “subjective”, ethics resulted in objective on the contrary. Demand for happiness is motive of all acts, were the common staring point of ethics once. The contemporary philosophy learned expel such a thinking as the mentalism, on the other hand chaos of spirits of today’s people people began simultaneously. This chaos are formed when people can’t understand their own motive of action is the demand for happiness or not. Then, at the same time, the reality of mind became doubtful, and various idealisms about humane interpretations raised. The reality of mind is certified only in the case of an order is in the mind. Demand for happiness is the base of the order, and the reality of mind is given by a fact of the demand for happiness. Ethics denying the theory of happiness is apparently logical, but in the fact it should be a Nihilism.

Psychology of the past was a critical study of mind. The aim is a criticism to mind same mean as the criticism of literary critic. The aim of psychology was evaluate and keep good order in various activities and aspects of humane mind. Philosophers are same as literary men in this aim. When a crisis of such a psychology of which criticize value was destroyed by the psychology based on the natural scientific method arised, in the opposite direction the human science occurred. So that, nowadays, the human science also deviate from the original motive and give up the inherent role as a criticism to human mind, and various arbitrary studies are called as the human science. The artistic things on Philosophy has been lost, and leave the profession of critic for human science to literary writers and authors. There’s today’s abstraction of philosophy, one doesn’t own psychology generally. Unforgettable thing at the moment is a particular thing of the contemporary philosophy is relate to the vanish of theory of happiness.

It’s wrong to think about happiness is a mere sensual thing. Or rather, the history of thought indicates subjectivism connect with the ethical theory of happiness. The problem of happiness is the mainstay of subjectivism.

Happiness is not contrary to virtue, or rather happiness is the virtue itself. Sure, it’s right to think about happiness of others. But, can we make a good act beyond your own happiness, for a person you love.

From ordinary trivial things to acts fo self-sacrifice, in various matters, happiness is a power. The fact that virtue is a power indicates the most apparent of happiness.

Goethes’ maxim, Personality is the greatest happiness of earthly men, is nothing like a perfect definition of happiness. To be happy is the same as to be a personality.

The question such as “Is happiness in physical pleasure or in mental pleasure, in action or being ?” pulls us into confusion. To such a question, we should say either is right. Because, personality is both a physical thing and a mental thing, both an action and a being. And, this notion means personality is a formative thing.

The thing today people don’t think about happiness, is suitable for the era of divided personalities as a modern characteristic. And, on the contrary, this fact proves the thesis that happiness is a personality in the scale of world history.

Happiness is a personality. Like a man takes off a coat, a man can easily throw away another happiness anytime is a greatest happy man. But he won’t throw away the true happiness and can’t throw away it. His happiness is one in himself the same as his life. He struggle with any difficulties together with this happiness. A man struggles with happiness as a weapon is happy even if he is defeated.

Good humour, politeness, kindness, tolerance and so on, happiness alway appears in surface. A merely internal happiness is not a true happiness like a poet does’t recite is not a true poet. Happiness is an expressive thing. A thing spontaneously appears outside and make other people happy like a bird sings is the true happiness.